American international order in the period of historical transition; Revival of the empire in the context of geopolitics

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Phd in International Relations

2 Professor in International Relations

Abstract

The international system has gone through several periods in terms of its structure and system dynamics and interacting units. From the concerted order at the Congress of Vienna to the bipolar order of the Cold War period and subsequently, the post-Cold War international order (unipolar or unipolar), each of the aforementioned forms have undergone a transformation. The common denominator of most of these orders is British geopoliticism, which has played a key role in the formation, continuation, stabilization and revival of the liberal world empire. This factor has been used in the period of dominance of the American discourse and order in order to cover internal gaps and reproduce the desired order. The current article examines the state of changes in the international order in the period of historical transition and the prominence of signs of geopoliticism in the process of transition from the current international order. In this regard, Halford Mackinder's geopolitical framework has been used to analyze the process of formation, consolidation, strengthening and revival of empires. Using the approach of comparative reasoning and comparative-historical analysis of the era of the British Empire and the American international order in the post-Cold War period, it is argued that with the emergence of signs of transition in the western-oriented international order,. This article is comparative-historical and the required information is collected by library method and reference to reliable internet sources.

Keywords


Smiley face

انعامی علمداری، سهراب؛ شفیعی، نوذر و متقی، ابراهیم. (1400). تحلیل نظری مدل مدیریت آشوب در ژئوپلیتیک جهانی. ژئوپلیتیک، 17 (2)، 228-203.
رئیسی‌نژاد، آرش. (1402). تنهایی استراتژیک تاریخی ایران و سیاست خارجی غیردولتی: از نفرین جغرافیا تا مخمصه ژئوپلیتیکی. ژئوپلیتیک، 19 (1)، 269-306.
روزنا، جیمز. (1382). جهان آشوبزده. ترجمة علیرضا طیب، تهران، پژوهشکدة مطالعات راهبردی.
سلیمان‌پور، هادی و مولایی، عبادلله. (1392). قدرت‌های نوظهور در دوران گذار نظام بین‌الملل. روابط خارجی، 5 (1)، 34-7.
طباطبایی، سیدمحمد و بهرامی، زهرا. (1397). تداوم دوران گذار در نظام بین‌الملل. سیاست خارجی، 32 (2)، 70-39.
ظریف، محمدجواد؛ مولایی، عبادلله و سجادپور، محمدکاظم. (1396). دوران گذار روابط بین‌الملل در جهان پساغربی. تهران: اداره نشر وزارت امور خارجه.
کرمی، جهانگیر. (1401). راهبرد امنیت لویاتانی: بازتاب محیط ژئوپلیتیک در اندیشه حکمرانی روسی. ژئوپلیتیک، 18 (3)، 69-31.
کرمی، جهانگیر. (1403). مکتب ژئوپلیتیک روسی: معمای پایدار آسیب‌پذیری و گسترش‌گرایی. مطالعات اوراسیای مرکزی، 17 (1)، 333-309.
گل‌محمدی، ولی. (1400). گذار به نظام بین‌الملل پساآمریکایی و تحول در روابط راهبردی آمریکا با متحدان خاورمیانه‌ای (مطالعه موردی ترکیه). مطالعات راهبردی آمریکا، 1 (1)، 96-75.
مصلی‌نژاد، عباس. (1392). سیاستگذاری امنیتی ناتو در مدیریت بحران‌های منطقه‌ای. سیاست جهانی، 2 (1)، 13-7.
ملازاده، مهدیه و قزلسفلی، محمدتقی. (1402). سقوط از ارتفاع دموکراسی؛ تحلیلی "توکویل"ی از دلائل افول آمریکا. مطالعات راهبردی آمریکا، 3 (3)، 62-41.
موسوی‌شفائی، مسعود. (1401). نظم بین‌الملل: ارکان، تحول، آینده. تهران: مرکز نشر دانشگاهی.
نادری، احمد. (1393). از ژئوپلیتیک دولت‌محور، به ژئوکالچر تمدن‌محور؛ خاورمیانه عرصه نبرد تمدن‌ها. مطالعات قدرت نرم، 4 (10)، 142-123.
نورعلی، حسن. احمدی، سیدعباس. (1401). بازنمایی چالش‌های ژئوپلیتیکی پیش‌روی طرح ابتکاری یک کمربند یک جاده چین. ژئوپلیتیک، 18 (2)، 34-1.
واعظ‌زاده، حسام‌الدین. (1395). جایگاه نظریۀ ژئوپلیتیک مکیندر در سیاست‌های جهانی بریتانیا. سیاست، 46 (2)، 551-531.
واعظی، محمود. (1387). سیاست خارجی و امنیتی مشترک اتحادیه اروپا. تهران: مرکز تحقیقات استراتژیک مجمع تشخیص مصلحت نظام.
واعظی، محمود. (1388). منافع روسیه و غرب در آسیای مرکزی و قفقاز و نقش تشکل‌های چندجانبه. آسیای مرکزی و قفقاز، (66)، 140-103.
یورونیوز. (2018). جنگ فراموش شدۀ اروپا؛ یک دهه از درگیری روسیه و گرجستان گذشت. قابل دسترسی در: https://parsi.euronews.com/2018/08/08/georgia-russia-conflict-south-ossetia-moscow-annexation-of-crimea
Cordesman, A. (2022). The Longer-Term Impact of the Ukraine Conflict and the Growing Importance of the Civil Side of War. The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).
Deudney, D. (2001). Greater Britain or Greater Synthesis? Review of International Studies, (27), 187-208.
Devine, M. (2022). War in Ukraine: A View from the United Kingdom. The Conference Board.
Dibb, P. (2022). The Geopolitical Implications of Russia's invasion of Ukraine. Australian Strategic Policy Institute.
European Parliament. (2024). Rising Russian gas imports undermine European plans to become independent of Russian gas. Available at:
 https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/E-10-2024-001376_EN.html
Friedman, G. (2022). The War, Geopolitical Futures. Available at:
 https://geopoliticalfutures.com/the-war/
Froude, J. A. (1871). England’s War. Short Studies on Great Subjects,1867–84, London: Longman Green.
Government of the United Kingdom. (2022). UK military support for Ukraine continues with delivery of counter explosive ordnance equipment. Available at:
https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-military-support-for-ukraine-continues-with-delivery-of-counter-explosive-ordnance-equipment
Greenberg, J. (2018). We have spent $7 trillion, trillion with a T, $7 trillion in the Middle East. Available at: https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2018/may/01/donald-trump/donald-trump-and-7-trillion-dollar-cost-war/
Grosse, R., Gamso, J., Nelson, R. (2021). China’s Rise, World Order, and the Implications for International Business. Management International Review, 61, 1-26.  
Gruyter, C. (2022). Britain and Russia are enemies in Ukraine – but both want to disrupt Europe. The Guardian.
Hafeznia, M. (2023). Scenarios for the Future of the World in Light of the Ukraine Crisis. Geopolitics Quarterly, 18 (4), 3-11.
Hammond, A. (2022). Russia-Ukraine war: Why won't Britain allow any debate? Middle East Eye.
He, K. Feng, H. (2002). International order transition and US-China strategic competition in the indo pacific. The Pacific Review, 36 (2), 234-260.
Humpert, M. (2024). Germany Continues to Import Russian Natural Gas Through Belgium and the Netherlands. Available at: https://www.highnorthnews.com/en/germany-continues-import-russian-natural-gas-through-belgium-and-netherlands
İnat, K. Yildiz, M. (2021). Will the Rise of China Transform the International System? Insight Turkey, 23 (4), 231-258.
James, H. (2022). Geopolitics is for losers: The concept of geopolitics comes from German and Russian attempts to explain defeat and reverse loss of influence. Available at: https://aeon.co/essays/geopolitics-is-a-losers-buzzword-with-a-contagious-id
Mackinder, H.J. (1902). Britain and the British Seas. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Mackinder, H.J. (1904). The geographical pivot of history. The Geographical Journal, (23), 421–37. Available online as Mackinder, H.J. The Geographical Pivot of History, in Democratic Ideals and Reality, Washington, DC: National Defence University Press.
Masters, J. (2022). Ukraine: Conflict at the Crossroads of Europe and Russia. The Council on Foreign Relations (CFR)
Mearsheimer, J. (2001). The Tragedy of Great Power Politic.  Norton & Company.
Meister, Stefan. (2022). A Paradigm Shift: EU-Russia Relations After the War in Ukraine. Carnegie Europe.
Monaghan, S. (2022). The Joint Expeditionary Force: Global Britain in Northern Europe? Center for Strategic and International Studies, Available at:
https://www.csis.org/analysis/joint-expeditionary-force-global-britain-northern-europ
Oxford and Empire Network. (2018). Geography and Empire: Sir Halford Mackinder in Oxford, 1880-1905. Available at: https://oxfordandempire.web.ox.ac.uk/article/geography-and-empire-sir-halford-mackinder
Rogers, J. (2022). A new European triumvirate: Plurilateralism in action, Britain’s World, the Council on Geostrategy’s online magazine, Available at:
 https://www.geostrategy.org.uk/britains-world/a-new-european-triumvirate-plurilateralism-in-action/
Rasmussen, A., Stent, A., Walt, S., Mohan, R., Niblett, R., Fix, L., Alden, E., Theil, S., (2022). Revisiting U.S. Grand Strategy After Ukraine. Foreign Policy.
Rumer, E. (2022). Putin’s Long War. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Sahakyan, M. (2023). China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order, Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace. Routledge: Taylor & Francis.
Sempa, F. (2000). Mackinder’s World. Available at:
https://americandiplomacy.web.unc.edu/2000/02/mackinders-world/
Statista Research Department. (2024). Import volume of natural gas from Russia in Germany from June 2021 to February 2024. Available at:
https://www.statista.com/statistics/1332783/german-gas-imports-from-russia/
Tsafos, N. (2022). Can European Energy Cope with a Conflict in Ukraine? The Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS).
UK support to Ukraine: factsheet. (2024). Policy paper: UK support to Ukraine: factsheet, Available at: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-support-to-ukraine-factsheet/uk-support-to-ukraine-factsheet
Wolczuk, K., Dragneva, R., Wallace, J., (2022). What is the Eurasian Economic Union? Available at: https://www.chathamhouse.org/2022/07/what-eurasian-economic-union
World Politics Review. (2023). How a Rising China Has Remade Global Politics. Available at: https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/how-a-rising-china-has-remade-global-politics/
 
Volume 4, Issue 1 - Serial Number 13
Serial number 13 - Spring 2024
November 2024
Pages 47-76
  • Receive Date: 26 January 2024
  • Revise Date: 17 October 2024
  • Accept Date: 17 November 2024
  • Publish Date: 21 November 2024