The Reasons of the Failure of the USA's Governance System to Deal with Coronavirus (COVID-19) Pandemic

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Ph.D. Department of Public Administration, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran, Iran

2 Master of Public Administration, Young Researchers and Elite Club, Qaemshahr, Iran

Abstract

United States of America hold first rank in the world based on COVID-19 pandemic crisis infection and deaths, and has been critiqued about the poor management and leadership of the COVID-19 crisis.Therefore, this question is raised, what are the factors of the failure of the United States governance system in managing the COVID-19 pandemic crisis?To answer this question, published papers in 2020 and 2021 are explored and analyzed.For this purpose,the Meta-synthesis method and open coding are used.Meta-synthesis findings showed that the studied papers posed six basic factors as the failure factors of US governance system in managing the COVID-19 pandemic crisis, respectively: structural factors (federalism and intragovernmental relations and separation of powers (Senate, House of Representatives, and federal government)); political factors (political ideology, political industry, and partisan and political polarization); factors relevant to public management and leadership (personality of the US president (Trumpism), and crisis management and leadership); social factors (distrust, social injustice, social disconnection (disintegration)); factors relevant to government nature and capacity (inefficiency of bureaucracy (government administrative structure) and privatization), and policy factors (neoliberal policies and health policies). Knowledge from this research could change the view of the world scholars and practitioners toward paradigms and theoretical foundations of management and governance from USA or at least rethink them. Because, affecting factors on the failure of the United States in the successful dealing with COVID-19 is beyond United States' President and his administration failure and disability, and is entrenched in the United States inefficient and declining political and governance system.

Highlights

Abrams, Stacey. (2020). American Leadership Begins at Home: The Global Imperative to Rebuild Governance and Restore Democracy. Foreign Affairs, 99(3). Retrieved From: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2020-05-01/stacey-abrams-american-leadership-begins-home

Allen, John. (2020). The History of COVID-19 Will Be Written by the Victors. Foreign Policy. Retrieved From: https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/20/world-order-after-coroanvirus-pandemic/

Ansell, Christopher. (2019). The Protective State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Argyriades, Demetrios. (2021). Public Service and Democracy or Warfare and Empire; Administration or Management: What Could be the New Norm, as we Exit the Pandemic? Lessons we learn from History. International Journal of Civil Service Reform and Practice, 6(1), 1-14.

Benton, J. Edwin. (2020). Challenges to federalism and intergovernmental relations and takeaways amid the COVID-19 experience. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 536-542.

Boin, Arjen, ‘t Hart, Paul, Stern, Eric, Sundelius, Bengt. (2005). The Politics of Crisis Management: Public Leadership under Pressure. UK: Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.

Campbell, Kurt M. & Doshi, Rush.  (2020). The Coronavirus Could Reshape Global Order China Is Maneuvering for International Leadership as the United States Falters. Foreign Affairs. Retrieved From: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2020-03-18/coronavirus-could-reshape-global-order

Cartalucci, Tony. (2020). Searching for Truth in What We Are Being Told About Covid-19. Global Research. Retrieved from: https://www.globalresearch.ca/searching-truth-told-about-covid-19/5709554

Christensen, Tom & Lægreid, Per. (2020). Balancing Governance Capacity and Legitimacy: How the Norwegian Government Handled the COVID‐19 Crisis as a High Performer. Public Administration Review, 80(5), 774-779.‏

Crosweller, Mark & Tschakert, Petra. (2020). Climate Change and Disasters: The Ethics of Leadership. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 11(2), e624.‏

Deslatte, Aaron. (2020). The erosion of trust during a global pandemic and how public administrators should counter it. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 489-496.

Downey, Davia Cox & Myers, William  M. (2020). Federalism, intergovernmental relationships, and emergency response: A comparison of Australia and the United States. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 526-535.

Eligon, John, Burch, Audra D. S., Searcey, Dionne, & . Oppel Jr., Richard A. (2020). Black Americans Face Alarming Rates of Coronavirus Infection in Some States. The New York Times. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/07/us/coronavirus-race.html

Farazmand, Ali (2009). Building administrative capacity for the age of rapid globalization: A modest prescription for survival for the 21st century. Public Administration Review, 69, 1007-1020.

Fukuyama, Francis. (2020a). The Thing That Determines a Country’s Resistance to the Coronavirus. The Atlantic. Retrieved from:

 https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/03/thing-determines-how-well-countries-respond-coronavirus/609025/

Fukuyama, Francis. (2020b). The Pandemic and Political Order: It Takes a State. Foreign Affairs, 99(4) (July/August 2020). Retrieved from: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2020-06-09/pandemic-and-political-order

Gehl, Katherine M., & Porter, Michael E. (2020). Politics Industry: How Political Innovation Can Break Partisan Gridlock and Save Our Democracy. First Edition, US: Harvard Business Review Press.

Goodman, Amy. (2020). Noam Chomsky on Trump’s Disastrous Coronavirus Response, Bernie Sanders & What Gives Him Hope. Retrieved from: https://www.democracynow.org/2020/4/10/noam_chomsky_trump_us_coronavirus_response

Grigsby, Sheila, Hernàndez, Alicia, John, Sara, Jones-Smith, Désirée, Kaufmann, Katie, Patrick, Cordaryl, Prener, Christopher, Tranel1, Mark, & Udani, Adriano. (2020). Resistance to Racial Equity in US Federalism and Its Impact on Fragmented Regions. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 658-667.

Grindle, Merilee S. (2017). Good governance, RIP: A critique and an alternative. Governance, 30(1), 17-22.

Grunstein, Judah. (2020). Why the Coronavirus Pandemic Won’t Lead to a New World Order. World Politics Review. Retrieved from: https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/28646/why-the-coronavirus-pandemic-won-t-lead-to-a-new-world-order

Haass, Richard Nathan. (2021). Present at the Destruction Trump’s Final Act Has Accelerated the Onset of a Post-American World. Foreign Affairs, Vol. 100, No. 1 (January/February). Retrieved from: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2021-01-11/present-destruction

Harari, Yuval Noah. (2020). The World after the Coronavirus. Financial Times. Retrieved from: https://www.ft.com/content/19d90308-6858-11ea-a3c9-1fe6fedcca75

Hatcher, William. (2020). A failure of political communication not a failure of bureaucracy: The danger of presidential misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 614-620.

James, Toby S. (2021). The effects of Donald Trump. Policy Studies, 42(5-6), 755-769.

John Hopkins University Coronavirus Resource Center. (2021). New Cases in COVID-19 World Countries. Retrieved from: https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/data/new-cases

Kapucu, Naim, & Moynihan, Donald. (2021). Trump’s (mis) management of the COVID-19 pandemic in the US. Policy Studies, 42(5-6), 592-610.

Kettl, Donald F. (2020). States divided: The implications of American federalism for COVID‐19. Public Administration Review, 80(4), 595-602.

Kissinger, Henry A. (2020). The Coronavirus Pandemic Will Forever Alter the World Order. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-coronavirus-pandemic-will-forever-alter-the-world-order-11585953005

Kullgren, Ian. (2020). Illinois Gov. Pritzker Mocks Trump’s Coronavirus Efforts. Retrieved from: https://www.politico.com/news/2020/03/22/wild-west-states-pritzker-says-141580

Lee, Yon-Shik. (2021). Managing COVID-19: Legal and Institutional Issues. Minnesota Journal of Law, Science & Technology, 23(1), 1-75.

Lopez, Steve. (2020). Column: The coronavirus pandemic has made one thing perfectly clear: It’s time to split the country. The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from: https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2020-04-22/column-coronavirus-split-country

MacDonald, Glen. (2021). Geographic Patterns of the Pandemic in the United States: Covid-19 Response Within a Disunified Federal System. In Akhtar, Rais. (Eds.). Coronavirus (COVID-19) Outbreaks, Environment and Human Behaviour (pp. 451-467). Switzerland: Springer Nature Switzerland AG.

Malik, Nasrin. (2020). It's no accident Britain and America are the world's biggest coronavirus losers. The Guardian. Retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/may/10/anglo-american-coronavirus-crisis

Mazzarino, Jane Marcia, Turatti, Luciana, & Petter, Sabrina Thais. (2020). Environmental governance: Media approach on the United Nations programme for the environment. Environmental Development, 33, 100502.

Mirvis, Philip H. (2020). Reflections: US coronavirus crisis management–learning from failure January–April, 2020. Journal of Change Management, 20(4), 283-311.

Moynihan, Donald, & Roberts, Alasdair. (2021). Dysfunction by Design: Trumpism as Administrative Doctrine. Public Administration Review, 81(1), 152-156.

Niblett, Robin. (2020). The End of Globalization as We Know It. Foreign Policy. Retrieved from: https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/20/world-order-after-coroanvirus-pandemic/

Orozco, Veronica. (2021). Impact of politics on public trust of COVID-19 communications. Doctoral Dissertation, Northridge, California State University.

Owoye, Oluwole, & Onafowora, Olugbenga A. (2021). The Massive Spreads and Fatalities of COVID-19 Pandemic in the United States: Symptoms of Leadership Failure. Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 4(1), 31-39.

Owoye, Oluwole, & Onafowora, Olugbenga A. (2022). The Massive Spreads and Fatalities of COVID-19 Pandemic in the USA: Symptoms of Leadership Failure. International Journal of Public Leadership, 18(2), 134-150.

Park, Sanghee, & Fowler, Luke. (2021). Political and administrative decentralization and responses to COVID-19: comparison of the United States and South Korea. International Journal of Organization Theory & Behavior, 24(4), 289-299.

Polychroniou C. J. (2020). Chomsky: Ventilator Shortage Exposes the Cruelty of Neoliberal Capitalism. Retrieved from: https://truthout.org/articles/chomsky-ventilator-shortage-exposes-the-cruelty-of-neoliberal-capitalism/

Radin, Beryl A. (2020). What Have We Learned in the Fields of Public Policy and Public Administration That Might Be Relevant to the Coronavirus Pandemic?. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 743-745.

Rhodes, Martin. (2021). ‘Failing forward’: a critique in light of covid-19. Journal of European Public Policy, 28(10), 1537-1554.

Robinson, Scott E., Ripberger, Joseph T., Gupta, Kuhika, Ross, Jennifer A., Fox, Andrew S., Jenkins‐Smith, Hank C., & Silva, Carol L. (2020). The Relevance and Operations of Political Trust in the COVID‐19 Pandemic. Public Administration Review, 81(6), 1110-1119.

Roberts, Alasdair. (2020a). The third and fatal shock: How pandemic killed the millennial paradigm. Public Administration Review, 80(4), 603-609.

Roberts, Alasdair. (2020b). “Whatever It Takes”: Danger, Necessity, and Realism in American Public Policy. Administration & Society, 52(7), 1131-1144.

Rozell, Mark J., & Wilcox, Clyde. (2020). Federalism in a time of plague: How federal systems cope with pandemic. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 519-525.

Rutledge, Paul E. (2020). Trump, COVID-19, and the war on expertise. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 505-511.

Sandelowski, Margarete, & Barroso, Julie. (2003). Toward a metasynthesis of qualitative findings on motherhood in HIV-positive women. Research in Nursing & Health, 26, 153–170.

Sandelowski, Margarete, & Barroso, Julie. (2007). Handbook for Synthesizing Qualitative Research. New York: Springer Publishing Company, Inc.

Schake, Kori. (2020). The United States Has Failed the Leadership Test. Foreign Policy. Retrieved from: https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/20/world-order-after-coroanvirus-pandemic/

Schismenos, Spyros, Smith, Antoine A., Stevens, Garry J., & Emmanouloudis, Dimitrios. (2021). Failure to lead on COVID-19: what went wrong with the United States?. International Journal of Public Leadership, 17(1), 39-53.

Solinas-Saunders, Monica. (2020). The US Federal Response to COVID-19 During the First 3 Months of the Outbreak: Was an Evidence-Based Approach an Option?. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 713-719.

The New York Times (2020). The America We Need. By The Editorial Board. The New York Times. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/09/opinion/coronavirus-inequality-america.html

The New York Times (2022). Coronavirus in the U.S.: Latest Map and Case Count. The New York Times, Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/us/covid-cases.html

World Health Organization (2020). Virtual press conference on COVID-19 – 11 March 2020. Retrieved from: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/transcripts/who-audio-emergencies-coronavirus-press-conference-full-and-final-11mar2020.pdf?sfvrsn=cb432bb3_2

Xu, H. Daniel, & Basu, Rashmita. (2020). How the United States Flunked the COVID-19 test: some observations and several lessons. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 568-576.

Zhifa, Zhou, & Pan, Qu. (2021). The root cause of the failure of American COVID-19 governance based on the criticism of liberal democracy from error-tolerant democracy. Philosophy, 11(7), 533-547.

Keywords

References

Abrams, Stacey. (2020). American Leadership Begins at Home: The Global Imperative to Rebuild Governance and Restore Democracy. Foreign Affairs, 99(3). Retrieved From: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2020-05-01/stacey-abrams-american-leadership-begins-home
Allen, John. (2020). The History of COVID-19 Will Be Written by the Victors. Foreign Policy. Retrieved From: https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/20/world-order-after-coroanvirus-pandemic/
Ansell, Christopher. (2019). The Protective State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Argyriades, Demetrios. (2021). Public Service and Democracy or Warfare and Empire; Administration or Management: What Could be the New Norm, as we Exit the Pandemic? Lessons we learn from History. International Journal of Civil Service Reform and Practice, 6(1), 1-14.
Benton, J. Edwin. (2020). Challenges to federalism and intergovernmental relations and takeaways amid the COVID-19 experience. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 536-542.
Boin, Arjen, ‘t Hart, Paul, Stern, Eric, Sundelius, Bengt. (2005). The Politics of Crisis Management: Public Leadership under Pressure. UK: Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Campbell, Kurt M. & Doshi, Rush.  (2020). The Coronavirus Could Reshape Global Order China Is Maneuvering for International Leadership as the United States Falters. Foreign Affairs. Retrieved From: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/china/2020-03-18/coronavirus-could-reshape-global-order
Cartalucci, Tony. (2020). Searching for Truth in What We Are Being Told About Covid-19. Global Research. Retrieved from: https://www.globalresearch.ca/searching-truth-told-about-covid-19/5709554
Christensen, Tom & Lægreid, Per. (2020). Balancing Governance Capacity and Legitimacy: How the Norwegian Government Handled the COVID‐19 Crisis as a High Performer. Public Administration Review, 80(5), 774-779.‏
Crosweller, Mark & Tschakert, Petra. (2020). Climate Change and Disasters: The Ethics of Leadership. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 11(2), e624.‏
Deslatte, Aaron. (2020). The erosion of trust during a global pandemic and how public administrators should counter it. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 489-496.
Downey, Davia Cox & Myers, William  M. (2020). Federalism, intergovernmental relationships, and emergency response: A comparison of Australia and the United States. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 526-535.
Eligon, John, Burch, Audra D. S., Searcey, Dionne, & . Oppel Jr., Richard A. (2020). Black Americans Face Alarming Rates of Coronavirus Infection in Some States. The New York Times. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/07/us/coronavirus-race.html
Farazmand, Ali (2009). Building administrative capacity for the age of rapid globalization: A modest prescription for survival for the 21st century. Public Administration Review, 69, 1007-1020.
Fukuyama, Francis. (2020a). The Thing That Determines a Country’s Resistance to the Coronavirus. The Atlantic. Retrieved from:
 https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/03/thing-determines-how-well-countries-respond-coronavirus/609025/
Fukuyama, Francis. (2020b). The Pandemic and Political Order: It Takes a State. Foreign Affairs, 99(4) (July/August 2020). Retrieved from: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/world/2020-06-09/pandemic-and-political-order
Gehl, Katherine M., & Porter, Michael E. (2020). Politics Industry: How Political Innovation Can Break Partisan Gridlock and Save Our Democracy. First Edition, US: Harvard Business Review Press.
Goodman, Amy. (2020). Noam Chomsky on Trump’s Disastrous Coronavirus Response, Bernie Sanders & What Gives Him Hope. Retrieved from: https://www.democracynow.org/2020/4/10/noam_chomsky_trump_us_coronavirus_response
Grigsby, Sheila, Hernàndez, Alicia, John, Sara, Jones-Smith, Désirée, Kaufmann, Katie, Patrick, Cordaryl, Prener, Christopher, Tranel1, Mark, & Udani, Adriano. (2020). Resistance to Racial Equity in US Federalism and Its Impact on Fragmented Regions. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 658-667.
Grindle, Merilee S. (2017). Good governance, RIP: A critique and an alternative. Governance, 30(1), 17-22.
Grunstein, Judah. (2020). Why the Coronavirus Pandemic Won’t Lead to a New World Order. World Politics Review. Retrieved from: https://www.worldpoliticsreview.com/articles/28646/why-the-coronavirus-pandemic-won-t-lead-to-a-new-world-order
Haass, Richard Nathan. (2021). Present at the Destruction Trump’s Final Act Has Accelerated the Onset of a Post-American World. Foreign Affairs, Vol. 100, No. 1 (January/February). Retrieved from: https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/united-states/2021-01-11/present-destruction
Harari, Yuval Noah. (2020). The World after the Coronavirus. Financial Times. Retrieved from: https://www.ft.com/content/19d90308-6858-11ea-a3c9-1fe6fedcca75
Hatcher, William. (2020). A failure of political communication not a failure of bureaucracy: The danger of presidential misinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 614-620.
James, Toby S. (2021). The effects of Donald Trump. Policy Studies, 42(5-6), 755-769.
John Hopkins University Coronavirus Resource Center. (2021). New Cases in COVID-19 World Countries. Retrieved from: https://coronavirus.jhu.edu/data/new-cases
Kapucu, Naim, & Moynihan, Donald. (2021). Trump’s (mis) management of the COVID-19 pandemic in the US. Policy Studies, 42(5-6), 592-610.
Kettl, Donald F. (2020). States divided: The implications of American federalism for COVID‐19. Public Administration Review, 80(4), 595-602.
Kissinger, Henry A. (2020). The Coronavirus Pandemic Will Forever Alter the World Order. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from: https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-coronavirus-pandemic-will-forever-alter-the-world-order-11585953005
Kullgren, Ian. (2020). Illinois Gov. Pritzker Mocks Trump’s Coronavirus Efforts. Retrieved from: https://www.politico.com/news/2020/03/22/wild-west-states-pritzker-says-141580
Lee, Yon-Shik. (2021). Managing COVID-19: Legal and Institutional Issues. Minnesota Journal of Law, Science & Technology, 23(1), 1-75.
Lopez, Steve. (2020). Column: The coronavirus pandemic has made one thing perfectly clear: It’s time to split the country. The Los Angeles Times. Retrieved from: https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2020-04-22/column-coronavirus-split-country
MacDonald, Glen. (2021). Geographic Patterns of the Pandemic in the United States: Covid-19 Response Within a Disunified Federal System. In Akhtar, Rais. (Eds.). Coronavirus (COVID-19) Outbreaks, Environment and Human Behaviour (pp. 451-467). Switzerland: Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
Malik, Nasrin. (2020). It's no accident Britain and America are the world's biggest coronavirus losers. The Guardian. Retrieved from: https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2020/may/10/anglo-american-coronavirus-crisis
Mazzarino, Jane Marcia, Turatti, Luciana, & Petter, Sabrina Thais. (2020). Environmental governance: Media approach on the United Nations programme for the environment. Environmental Development, 33, 100502.
Mirvis, Philip H. (2020). Reflections: US coronavirus crisis management–learning from failure January–April, 2020. Journal of Change Management, 20(4), 283-311.
Moynihan, Donald, & Roberts, Alasdair. (2021). Dysfunction by Design: Trumpism as Administrative Doctrine. Public Administration Review, 81(1), 152-156.
Niblett, Robin. (2020). The End of Globalization as We Know It. Foreign Policy. Retrieved from: https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/20/world-order-after-coroanvirus-pandemic/
Orozco, Veronica. (2021). Impact of politics on public trust of COVID-19 communications. Doctoral Dissertation, Northridge, California State University.
Owoye, Oluwole, & Onafowora, Olugbenga A. (2021). The Massive Spreads and Fatalities of COVID-19 Pandemic in the United States: Symptoms of Leadership Failure. Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 4(1), 31-39.
Owoye, Oluwole, & Onafowora, Olugbenga A. (2022). The Massive Spreads and Fatalities of COVID-19 Pandemic in the USA: Symptoms of Leadership Failure. International Journal of Public Leadership, 18(2), 134-150.
Park, Sanghee, & Fowler, Luke. (2021). Political and administrative decentralization and responses to COVID-19: comparison of the United States and South Korea. International Journal of Organization Theory & Behavior, 24(4), 289-299.
Polychroniou C. J. (2020). Chomsky: Ventilator Shortage Exposes the Cruelty of Neoliberal Capitalism. Retrieved from: https://truthout.org/articles/chomsky-ventilator-shortage-exposes-the-cruelty-of-neoliberal-capitalism/
Radin, Beryl A. (2020). What Have We Learned in the Fields of Public Policy and Public Administration That Might Be Relevant to the Coronavirus Pandemic?. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 743-745.
Rhodes, Martin. (2021). ‘Failing forward’: a critique in light of covid-19. Journal of European Public Policy, 28(10), 1537-1554.
Robinson, Scott E., Ripberger, Joseph T., Gupta, Kuhika, Ross, Jennifer A., Fox, Andrew S., Jenkins‐Smith, Hank C., & Silva, Carol L. (2020). The Relevance and Operations of Political Trust in the COVID‐19 Pandemic. Public Administration Review, 81(6), 1110-1119.
Roberts, Alasdair. (2020a). The third and fatal shock: How pandemic killed the millennial paradigm. Public Administration Review, 80(4), 603-609.
Roberts, Alasdair. (2020b). “Whatever It Takes”: Danger, Necessity, and Realism in American Public Policy. Administration & Society, 52(7), 1131-1144.
Rozell, Mark J., & Wilcox, Clyde. (2020). Federalism in a time of plague: How federal systems cope with pandemic. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 519-525.
Rutledge, Paul E. (2020). Trump, COVID-19, and the war on expertise. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 505-511.
Sandelowski, Margarete, & Barroso, Julie. (2003). Toward a metasynthesis of qualitative findings on motherhood in HIV-positive women. Research in Nursing & Health, 26, 153–170.
Sandelowski, Margarete, & Barroso, Julie. (2007). Handbook for Synthesizing Qualitative Research. New York: Springer Publishing Company, Inc.
Schake, Kori. (2020). The United States Has Failed the Leadership Test. Foreign Policy. Retrieved from: https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/03/20/world-order-after-coroanvirus-pandemic/
Schismenos, Spyros, Smith, Antoine A., Stevens, Garry J., & Emmanouloudis, Dimitrios. (2021). Failure to lead on COVID-19: what went wrong with the United States?. International Journal of Public Leadership, 17(1), 39-53.
Solinas-Saunders, Monica. (2020). The US Federal Response to COVID-19 During the First 3 Months of the Outbreak: Was an Evidence-Based Approach an Option?. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 713-719.
The New York Times (2020). The America We Need. By The Editorial Board. The New York Times. Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/09/opinion/coronavirus-inequality-america.html
The New York Times (2022). Coronavirus in the U.S.: Latest Map and Case Count. The New York Times, Retrieved from: https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2021/us/covid-cases.html
World Health Organization (2020). Virtual press conference on COVID-19 – 11 March 2020. Retrieved from: https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/transcripts/who-audio-emergencies-coronavirus-press-conference-full-and-final-11mar2020.pdf?sfvrsn=cb432bb3_2
Xu, H. Daniel, & Basu, Rashmita. (2020). How the United States Flunked the COVID-19 test: some observations and several lessons. The American Review of Public Administration, 50(6-7), 568-576.
Zhifa, Zhou, & Pan, Qu. (2021). The root cause of the failure of American COVID-19 governance based on the criticism of liberal democracy from error-tolerant democracy. Philosophy, 11(7), 533-547.
American Strategic Studies
Volume 2, Issue 4 - Serial Number 8
Winter Quarterly
October 2023
Pages 157-189

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History

  • Receive Date: 28 January 2023
  • Revise Date: 15 September 2023
  • Accept Date: 15 October 2023

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